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The suppressed EU report on antisemitism in Europe has now been published on the Board of Deputies website, and a powerful, sobering and important read it is. It records a wave of antisemitism across Europe in the wake of the outbreak of the present terror campaign against Israel after the Camp David talks in 2000. It says the physical attacks on Jews have been perpetrated mainly by extreme right wing groups and young Muslims mostly of Arab descent, who themselves were often victims of racism.
'Desecration of synagogues, cemeteries, swastika graffiti, threatening and insulting mail as well as the denial of the Holocaust as a theme, particularly on the Internet. These are the forms of action to be primarily assigned to the far-right. Physical attacks on Jews and the desecration and destruction of synagogues were acts often committed by young Muslim perpetrators in the monitoring period. Many of these attacks occurred either during or after pro-Palestinian demonstrations, which were also used by radical Islamists for hurling verbal abuse. In addition, radical Islamist circles were responsible for placing anti-Semitic propaganda on the Internet and in Arab-language media'.
Even more significant is that it records the convergence of the radical left, the far right and Islamists in this outbreak of Jew-hatred:
'Israel, seen as a capitalistic, imperialistic power, the “Zionist lobby”, and the United States are depicted as the evildoers in the Middle East conflict as well as exerting negative influence on global affairs. The convergence of these motives served both critics of colonialism and globalisation from the extreme left and the traditional anti-Semitic right-wing extremism as well as parts of the radical Islamists in some European countries'.
Having drawn attention to the explosion of far-right internet sites with links to Islamists (and noted -- startlingly -- that far-right music glorifying antisemitic violence is distributed mainly from Scandinavia), it points out that antisemitism is different from racism in that it centres on demonising the Jews as a nationally and internationally influential group, allegedly controlling politics and the economy.
And it also tackles the canard that the claim of resurgent antisemitism is only being made to conceal or sanitise the wrongdoings of Israel. Helpfully, it establishes some pointers to where the line is crossed from legitimate criticism of Israel into antisemitism, making clear that this line has indeed been breached. Key paragraph:
'Following September 11, 2001, some hold that Islamist terrorism is a natural consequence of the unsolved Middle East conflict, for which Israel alone is held responsible. They ascribe to Jews a major influence over the USA’s allegedly biased pro-Israel policies. This is where anti-American and anti-Semitic attitudes could converge and conspiracy theories over “Jewish world domination” might flare up again. The assumption of close ties between the US and Israel gives rise to a further motive for an anti-Semitic attitude. Amongst the political left, anti-Americanism and anti-Zionism are very closely tied together. Due to its occupation policy, sections of the peace movement, opponents of globalisation as well as some Third World countries view Israel as aggressive, imperialistic and colonialist. Taken on its own terms this is naturally not to be viewed as anti-Semitic; and yet there are exaggerated formulations which witness a turn from criticism into anti-Semitism, for example when Israel and the Jews are reproached for replicating the most horrific crimes of the National Socialists like the Holocaust. In the form of anti-Semitism it could be said that the tradition of demonising Jews in the past is now being transferred to the state of Israel. In this way traditional anti-Semitism is translated into a new form, less deprived of legitimacy, whose employment today in Europe could become part of the political mainstream'.
Exactly. Antisemitism is protean, and it has mutated into a new form yet again in which Israel is the collective Jew to be demonised, dehumanised and delegitimised. The fact that this report was suppressed speaks volumes about the political culture that it is describing. The fact that its details have nevertheless seeped out may mean that it now will be a little less easy for the antisemitism-deniers to blame the victims for their own demonisation.
It’s an irony that many outspoken supporters of Israel (such as Melanie Philips) are considered very right wing/far right.
And that the Semites actually include both Arab Palestinians and Jews.
Therefore, far right anti-Semitic/Arab literature could strictly speaking include this article by Melanie.
The anti Semitism in Britain and on the continent is there, is tangible, and will only get worse. I wish that Tony Blair for one would take a firm stand and get in the faces of those members of the establishment who engage in the oldest hatred.
Wait being a supporter of Israel means you are far right? Excuse me, what the hell are you on about?
Your logic is completely incomprehensible.
Mike: I am not sure if you are serious but if you are your logic is seriously warped. Your attempt to conflate Arabs and Jews as both Semites is a patently ridiculous attempt to deflect criticism of anti-Semitism by reversing it back onto the one making the critique, in this case, Melanie. It is an old Arab canard to claim that Jews and Arabs are both Semites so therefore, by definition, any criticism of Arabs is anti-Semitism, too. Give us a break. Anti-Semitism is hatred of Jews and you know it. If you're joking, I' advise you to get better material. And, if you're just being anti-Semitic, by trying to point out some kind of contradiction in anti-Semitism, then you know where I think you should go....
But Andrew, that is how moonbats/idiotarians "argue." Logic is the least of their worries.
Arabs are of mixed semitic races so are polysemites. Jews are semites.
Maybe that's clear enough.
Arabs are spending a lot of money on PR to divert the attention from Saudi Arabia who's funding terrorism and supporting it... the fact that America is involed in a multi trillion dollar business with Saudi could possibly be the reason for them not bombing them to smithereens.
So the focus is on the minority - as always, the Jews!
Is anyone surprised? Will anyone be surprised in 20 years when there is an Islamic Union of Europe... the global jihad started on 9/11 and radical Islam won't stop until the Khilafa is established!
"I wish that Tony Blair for one "
Why ? You like the intervention of a duplicitous shyster with no convictions and a track record of congenital dishonesty........so be it....your chose defender !
Once again Melanie is to be congratulated for highlighting the trully malevolent and potentially catastrophic phenomenon that is left-liberal antisemitism.
The only point upon which I am regretfully forced to disagree with her analysis is in her characterisation of left-liberal antisemitism as something new.
Very far from being new this particular strain is in fact the oldest form of the disease. It is in essence a latter day, post-Enlightenment manifestation of that pre-Christian, archaic antisemitism which found it's ultimate expression in the cataclysmic conflict between Hellenism and Judaism.
I wholeheartedly agree that antisemitism is protean, that it is outwardly capable of mutating over time and in different locations and cultures, but it's root cause remains always and everywhere the same.Inasmuch as as the modern left-liberal expression is a manifestation of it's earliest and "purest" strain it merits close study and, once again, I congratulate Melanie for consistently exposing it to the light of day.
". . . Having drawn attention to the explosion of far-right internet sites with links to Islamists (and noted -- startlingly -- that far-right music glorifying antisemitic violence is distributed mainly from Scandinavia), it points out that antisemitism is different from racism in that it centres on demonising the Jews as a nationally and internationally influential group, allegedly controlling politics and the economy. . ."
As I have been saying all along. . . No matter how much they deny it, the EU has been letting this happen all in the guise of being "anti-Israeli." All one has to do is to speak to ordinary people on the street anywhere in Europe and the anti-Semitism is palpable. It has always been there. . . but now, there is an excuse that makes it seem "legitimate" AGAIN—Israel.
The Euros are anti-Muslim as well, but don't have the guts to speak very loudly about that because the "Religion of Pieces" screams, "Say we are the Religion of Peace or we shall kill you!" The EU does not have the cojones to be anti-Islamic terrorism and call for a Reformation in Islam for FEAR of being seen as anti-Muslim. Being anti-Muslim is not the same as being anti-Islamic terrorism.
Why is it that the EU does not call out and respond to the blatant anti-Semitism as well as the bigotry and the misogyny found in any and all Islamic literature, especially the Qu'ran? What about the EU speaking out against the Friday sermons by Islamic clerics inciting the "true believers" to murderous jihad against the Jews and the "infidel"? What about the EU protesting those Islamic school books and the madrassas that instill hatred of Jews and the "other" all across the Islamic world? As the report states, many of those Islamic hate websites originate in Europe—in those countries that constantly blow their own horns for being "oh so fair and non-racist"—Scandinavia. Why is it that holier-than-thou Europe, which always bills itself as so much less racist than the US, does not speak out against Islamic misanthropy? After all, the Islamists are trying to do EXACTLY what they accuse the Jews of having already done—take over the world, this time in the name of Islam.
When economies go sour and socialist government policies fail, there must be a scapegoat. The Jews have always been a very convenient one. Good thing they are smart enough and strong enough to counter this. The pen is indeed mightier than the sword. Suicide bombers have nothing on a bunch of intellectual Jews with computers.
Thanks to the Jews this report was not permitted to be pushed under the rug. As they say, "Never again!"
Plus ça change, plus c'est la même chose!
Lili
"Saudi Arabia who's "
"which is" Nannette....use of English
All one has to do is to speak to ordinary people on the street anywhere in Europe and the anti-Semitism is palpable.
The Euros are anti-Muslim as well"
Well Lilith, at least they can live in harmony with the others. Maybe it is importing squabbles from the Middle East into Europe that has caused the problem, don't you think ?
"Well Lilith, at least they can live in harmony with the others. Maybe it is importing squabbles from the Middle East into Europe that has caused the problem, don't you think ?"
That "living in harmony" is a bit new, Didact. Europe was quite war like and imperialistic for millennia.
As to importing squabbles from the Middle East. Do you really believe that if Israel disappeared tomorrow that radical Islam would stop terrorizing the whole world?
Lili
Nothing wrong with Empires.....it is just that the US is having great difficulty trying to structure one. Imported from the Middle East refers to parties which have imported a quarrel into Europe each trying to drag other peoples into their convoluted problems.
The French have always been openly anti-semitic. I was in France for a month of so after an Apple expo to wait for my mother arrive for a business trip (pre-9/11). I was amazed, yes cynical ole' me, when I heard several of our French contacts saysing "X, who is a Jew you know, did this (or said this." I have never heard anyone in the UK express it this blunt way in common communication.
I certainly hope that Michael Howard has good police protection. I am sure there are those who are not pleased to have a Jewish man poised to assume the job of PM.
Labour MPS have criticised Tony Blair for daring to associate himself with people of Jewish ancestry (like the anti-Israel Jack Straw). They also don't like that the fact that there are Jews in the American administration. So can you imagine what they'd be like if we had a Jewish priminister? I just hope we get to find out.
I certainly hope that Michael Howard has good police protection. I am sure there are those who are not pleased to have a Jewish man poised to assume the job of PM. "
Yeah it will come as a huge shock to Peter Mandelson to be replaced by Michael Howard....maybe Blair will stay on as doorman
Once, the left believed in "Liberation Theology" - the idea that the socialist paradise could be attained through terrorism. That belief has mutated into an admiration for islamic terrorism directed against a "capitalist-imperialist" Israel. Add an underlying hostility to Jewish capitalists (or moneylenders) and you have the modern leftist anti-semitism.
A (futile) desire to appease islamic fundamentalist hostility to Europe also plays a part.
I notice some journalists and commentators have begun using the word "Judeophobic" to avoid the ambiguity of the word "antiSemitic".
It is tiresome to have continually to repeat this for the particularly ignorant, but "antisemitism" never meant anything except hatred of Jews. The term was coined by the hater of Jews Wilhelm Marr in the late 19th Century to replace "Judenhass" because the latter term was not, as we might now say, trendy enough. Antisemitism seemed much more "scientific" and modern to Marr and his pals. Antisemites have never hesitated to cooperate with Arabs, indeed the Nazis were very supportive of them and their wish to make Palestine and the rest of the Middle East judenrein.
Someone arguing that antisemitism in any way refers to Arabs is either grossly ignorant or arguing in bad faith. Take your pick.
Andrew, to add to your observations. I was in Paris recently and noticed a suburb in the South is called "Villejuif", which I think is roughly translated to "Jew City". So, in some sense it's still out in the open and I would hope someone would petition they change the name of that place -- it's an affront to humanity!
"Nothing wrong with Empires.....it is just that the US is having great difficulty trying to structure one. Imported from the Middle East refers to parties which have imported a quarrel into Europe each trying to drag other peoples into their convoluted problems."
Didact, the US has never had nor will it ever have an "empire" in the same manner that European countries built empires in ages past.
Let us not forget that Europe, specifically Britain, set up Israel in an effort to assuage their guilt for having been complicit in decimating 6 million Jews. The US had NOTHING to do with Balfour!
If you want to talk about "importing" problems from the Middle East, I would talk about exporting the problems that Europe originally created to the rest of the world. While the US also has its problems with bigotry and prejudice—we have come a long way, Europe still has a long way to go in admitting its bigotries as evidenced by the recent suppression of the anti-Semitism report.
Now, there are reports that al Qaeda is recruiting not only in the ME but all over Europe!
"Trail of Anti-U.S. Fighters Said to Cross Europe to Iraq"
http://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/06/international/europe/06QAED.html
"Over the past year, the officials estimate, the network of recruiters working in at least six European countries — Italy, Germany, France, Spain, Britain and Norway — has assisted hundreds of young men trying to get to Iraq. The network provided high quality fake documents, training, money, and infiltration routes into the country, the officials said.
They said the evidence indicated that the campaign to recruit young militant Muslims for Iraq had become better organized and coordinated in recent months. . .
. . . "We have seen an intensification of movement by people who are under investigation," said Armando Spataro, coordinator of terrorism investigations at Milan's Justice Department. "They were going to Iraq or to training camps. We have seen that movement across Europe."
The evidence gathered by Italian investigators indicates that fighters entering Iraq from Italy have been active in recent attacks on coalition forces there, Italian judicial and military officials said. One official said there was evidence that a recruit from Italy, Morchidi Kamal, was involved in the October rocket attack on the Rashid hotel in Baghdad, where the American assistant defense secretary, Paul D. Wolfowitz, was staying at the time. . . "
-----
I continue to maintain that Europe has appeased these monsters and now the chickens are coming home to roost!
However, there is hope:
"Chirac Denounces Muslim Head Scarves on Schoolgirls"
". . .Speaking on a visit to Tunisia, Mr. Chirac said the strictly secular French state could not let students wear what he called "ostentatious signs of religious proselytism" and saw "something aggressive" in the wearing of traditional Muslim veils. . . "
http://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/06/international/europe/06SCAR.html
All I can say is, it's about time!
Lili
I never knew Arthur Balfour set up a Jewish State....actually, he fell under the spell of his sister I thought....besides he was only at the FO u1916-19 when Mosley's father-in-law Lord Curzon succeeded, and I really don't think Great Britain ever pushed for Israel to be set up Lilith.
You are such a revisionist - so Hitler "decimated" the Jews did he ? Only 10% were killed......you are one of those extemists I see. I'll stick with the full 6 million not the 10% you claim.
"specifically Britain, set up Israel in an effort to assuage their guilt for having been complicit in decimating 6 million "
YOu are right Lilith. NO Jews were gassed before Britain and France declared war on Germany. The US declared neutrality so it cannot be 'guilty'. Britain was wrong top go to war in 1939 and should have acceeded to Hitler's requests for a Non-Aggression Treaty. All the evils that flowed from the Second World War are to be laid at the decision of Neville Chamberlain to declare war on Germany on 3rd September, 1939.......the United States never declared war on Germany. obviously a wiser course of action.
Didact, That is the weirdest post yet.
What ARE you talking about? None of it makes ANY sense!
Lili
Simply this Lilith. You accuse Britain of being allied with Germany in cremating Jews, and that Britain is 'guilty'.
I see your point. Had Britain NOT declared war on Germany none of this would have happened. Chamberlain was wrong to declare war, FDR was too clever to do that.....it would have probably been better for Britain NOT to have gone to war with Germany....and Chamberlain made a big error in declaring war, which France recognised almost immediately and ceased hostilities within 8 months; the Us kept aloof from; and Britain foolishly pursued.
You note than no Jews were gassed until October 1942, and it is probable that had Britain settled in October 1939, none of these terrible events would have unfolded.
You have persuaded me Lilith, that had Britain gone the extra mile to secure agreement with Adolf Hitler. none of this would have been necessary.
Didact,
I suggest you re-read my posts.
"You note than no Jews were gassed until October 1942, and it is probable that had Britain settled in October 1939, none of these terrible events would have unfolded."
I have not said any of what you claim. Please produce the quote. Perhaps you have me confused with someone else?
I do "accuse," as you put it, all of Europe as well as the US of having been anti-Semitic during WW II and before. Currently, I believe that Europe is STILL anti-Semitic. There is plenty of evidence to prove that.
As to appeasement, I am the one speaking against appeasement of Islam a la Chamberlain of the Nazis.
You are confused.
Lili
"Let us not forget that Europe, specifically Britain, set up Israel in an effort to assuage their guilt for having been complicit in decimating 6 million Jews. The US had NOTHING to do with Balfour! "
The fact remains that Chamberlain was a very strong Prime Minister who pursued a policy and removed those who opposed him. It was a highly popular policy, and it was internationally acclaimed for preserving peace in Europe....only by his volte-face on 3rd September 1939 did he plunge Great Britain into a ruinous war and bring Soviet Russia into the heart of Europe.
Read the German-Soviet Friendship Treaty of 28 September 1939, and see how ready both USSR and Germany were for an alliance with The British Empire......with Britain, USSR, Italy, France, Germany and Japan allied there would have been no need for the destruction of Central Europe and the USA could have continued in its comfortable neutrality.
It was the fact theat Britain declared war on Germany for the second time in a generation; whereas all Germany wanted was British neutrality.
Had Chamberlain been less intemperate, he could have declared Britain neutral like the United States......it was a far more sensible policy and would have been less damaging to British interests.
Britain did not set up "Israel" it did not even recognise the State. Jews were not "decimated"...they were "exterminated".....do use the English language correctly.
http://www.classbrain.com/artteenst/publish/article_118.shtml
"May 14, 1948, the Provisional Government of Israel proclaimed a new State of Israel. On that same date, the United States, in the person of President Truman, recognized the provisional Jewish government as de facto authority of the Jewish state (de jure recognition was extended on January 31, 1949). "
The statement, which became known as the Balfour Declaration, was, in part, payment to the Jews for their support of the British against the Turks during World War I. After the war, the League of Nations ratified the declaration and in 1922 appointed Britain to rule Palestine
When Harry S. Truman took office, he made clear that his sympathies were with the Jews and accepted the Balfour Declaration, explaining that it was in keeping with former President Woodrow Wilson's principle of "self-determination."
Britain and the United States, in a joint effort to examine the dilemma, established the "Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry." In April 1946 the committee submitted recommendations that Palestine not be dominated by either Arabs or Jews.
British, Arab, and Jewish reactions to the recommendations were not favorable. Britain, anxious to rid itself of the problem, set the United Nations in motion, formally requesting on April 2, 1947, that the UN General Assembly set up the Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP). This committee recommended that the British mandate over Palestine be ended
The U.S. delegates to the UN and top-ranking State Department officials were angered that Truman released his recognition statement to the press without notifying them first.
Britain recognised Israel in 1950 - hardly the same as "specifically Britain, set up Israel "
"Had Chamberlain been less intemperate, he could have declared Britain neutral like the United States......it was a far more sensible policy and would have been less damaging to British interests."
Duke, Britain knew that the Nazis were "exterminating" Jews and other "Untermenschen" in Germany and ultimately Europe. The fact is that Jews of Europe, especially in Germany, were DECIMATED with the help of most of Europe! Are you suggesting that Britain should have continued to ignore this atrocity with "neutrality"? That is rather the same as turning a blind eye to the atrocities committed by Saddam Hussein and those happening in Africa. Europe appears to wants to be "neutral" about those atrocities and genocides as well. It appears that might be a "more sensible policy" less damaging to Britain and Europe 's "interests."
"Britain did not set up "Israel" it did not even recognize the State. Jews were not "decimated"...they were "exterminated".....do use the English language correctly."
Of course, they were BOTH exterminated and decimated. We do want to use the Queen's English correctly. ;-)
Britain was the author of the Balfour agreement and is widely recognized/blamed for the partitioning of the Palestinian territories. Israel declared itself a country in 1948. The Palestinians could have done the same anytime since then! A good time might have been 1967 or even 2000 at Camp David. But, no, they called another murderous intefadah because the Palestinians want it all.
"Britain recognised Israel in 1950 - hardly the same as "specifically Britain, set up Israel "
Read your own post Trundle. It contradicts the above statement. The Arabs "blame" Britain and Europe for creating the Israeli problem and blames the US and the rest of the West for perpetuating it. Had the world not turned a blind eye to Hitler's mission to exterminate the Jews with the "Final Solution" then perhaps international Jewry would still be gracing other lands instead of so many having returned to their historical homeland.
Amazing that not only don't the Arabs never take responsibility for anything, but now, you claim that Britain or the Europeans have not had a hand in any of this. LOL
So, my questions are: What will Europe and the UK do to help solve this problem? Why is it always the US that is asked to "fix" everything and then damned for whatever it does?
Where is European responsibility for world peace in all of this? After all, Europe as well as the Arabs have supported and funded the Palestinians—and with that the terrorists.
Lili
Nannette wrote:
"Arabs are of mixed semitic races so are polysemites. Jews are semites. Maybe that's clear enough."
How patently absurd. I have not heard such nonsensical racial exclusivity asserted since the Third Reich.
And based on what?
Todays Jews are descended from people all over the planet, as they themselves live all over the planet, and their forebears, to varying degrees, assimilated with local populations.
The Israelis of Israel are descended from Western, Central and Eastern Europeans, from Celts, Saxons, Slavs and Germanics. That is not even taking into account those few that are descended from the 30,000 or so Jews that are known to have lived in Palestine around 1900, or the Jews that came from around the Arabic world to join Israel, or the Jews from Africa.
I'm afraid that realistically, only the Gulf Arabs can claim to have any Semitic heritage whatsoever. And can therefore be the only ones to rightfully claim to be the victims of any "anti-Semitic" prejudice.
Most Jewish people assert that they are not a "race" but a "people". They are not even that much. They are a bunch of religious adherents.
Mike, that is actually not true. It also depends on which ilk of Jews you are speaking of, Askanazi (sic) or Sepharidic. The fact that Jews tend to inter-marry means their links to semitic peoples is a lot stronger than you might imagine. If fact, although it is sometimes a pain to gentiles who fall for Jews, part of the Jews strength of survival is the fact that they stick to their own quite a lot. They have retained not only their religion, but their cultural heritage despite being spread all over the world (either by choice or by force).
I would recomend Why the Jews?, a very interesting examination of anti-semiticism/Jewry.
"I'm afraid that realistically, only the Gulf Arabs can claim to have any Semitic heritage whatsoever. And can therefore be the only ones to rightfully claim to be the victims of any "anti-Semitic" prejudice."
Perhaps you can write a letter to the makers of dictionaries and definitions, Mr. Talisman? LOL
Interestingly enough, it is the Jews who have been persecuted throughout history FOR NO REASON! Arabs are the ones who brought forth Islam with its anti-"non-believers" and anti-Jews tenets in the Qu'ran. That to me, is bigotry of the first order. "Islam über alles" is what the Qu'ran says. Islam must rule over the world; those who will not "submit" to Islam must be killed.
"Slay those who believe neither in God nor the Last Day, who do not forbid what God and his apostle have forbidden, and who do not embrace the true Faith, until they pay jaziah out of hand and are utterly subdued Surah Al-Tawbah (Repentence), Ayah 29, . . "
I can never fathom WHY Jews have been so persecuted through the ages? They are an intelligent, talented people (religious group) who have done much for humanity—certainly much more than either the Arabs or Islam EVER have.
Perhaps jealousies are more of a motivator for bigotry than anything else at all?
"Seeing the West as "God's Enemy"
Global terrorism sprouted and thrived in the strongholds of radical Islam. Islamic scholar Bernard Lewis, in "The Roots of Muslim Rage,"1 explains the rise of the Islamic radicalism and the increasing hatred of the West as a response to Western superiority and to the undermining of Islam's authority by Western culture. The Islamic hatred is, according to Lewis, an outcome of the collision between the Western and Islamic civilizations and "an Islamic historical response to secularism and the Jewish-Christian heritage." Lewis' approach provides an essential interpretation of the roots of the current clash of civilizations, but it lacks a reference to the implications of the accumulating hatred for the West, which is viewed by many Muslims as "God's enemy." Jonathan D. Halevi
http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/90sep/rage.htm
In the grand scheme of things, if one takes the long, very long, view—Islamic terrorism and anti-Semitism will do much to move Islam toward Reformation and enlightenment. Unfortunately, like in all wars, it will cost legions of lives.
Lili
Andrew wrote:
"If fact, although it is sometimes a pain to gentiles who fall for Jews, part of the Jews strength of survival is the fact that they stick to their own quite a lot. They have retained not only their religion, but their cultural heritage despite being spread all over the world (either by choice or by force)."
Andrew, while I can (kinda) understand why you might see this intentional insularity as some kind of display of discipline and unity, it is, however, to my mind, a deliberate, anti-universalistic attitude that is more counter-productive than it is profitable to the greater humanity.
Call me an old fashioned guy, but I thought that what we were striving towards wasn't further trivial division among the species, but greater unity through an assimilated universalist, humanist culture that we can all share in.
The kind of intentional exclusivity that you describe works against this, and is only one step removed from bigotry in my humble opinion. (Naturally, I do not believe this to be limited to Judaism in particular)
"I would recomend Why the Jews?, a very interesting examination of anti-semiticism/Jewry."
Thanks for the reference, I shall try to find and read it.
Lilith wrote:
"Interestingly enough, it is the Jews who have been persecuted throughout history FOR NO REASON!"
Not all of your brethen seem to concur with you on that one Lilith. As the Jewish author Alan Edelstein noted:
"Reason and documentation ... attest to the fact that anti-Jewish hostility has not been (and is not) constant and ubiquitous. If it had been, the conclusion is obvious: Jews could not have survived individually or collectively, religiously or ethnically."
Seems a reasonable assertion to me. My ancestors were Celts, and we were hunted and slaughtered by Germanic peoples from 500AD onwards. We went from being the first masters of Europe to clinging desperately to the very edges of the British Isles, most of our ancient language and culture expunged. Yet I know that the persecution could not have been constant or universal, or I simply would not exist today.
"Arabs are the ones who brought forth Islam with its anti-"non-believers" and anti-Jews tenets in the Qu'ran. That to me, is bigotry of the first order. "Islam über alles" is what the Qu'ran says. Islam must rule over the world; those who will not "submit" to Islam must be killed."
And there are verses in the Talmud that advocate a pious Jew allow an imperiled Gentile to die, rather than save him. There are verses in the Old Testament that advocate everything from slavery to murder. Show me any book written before the dark ages that doesn't say some pretty damn silly things.
(And no, books by the Greeks are not permitted!)
"Slay those who believe neither in God nor the Last Day, who do not forbid what God and his apostle have forbidden, and who do not embrace the true Faith, until they pay jaziah out of hand and are utterly subdued Surah Al-Tawbah (Repentence), Ayah 29, . . "
And in contemporary news, Rabbi Daniel Lapin wrote an entire book in 1999 about Jewry's defamation of Christianity. As he notes:
"A scenario I have seen several times took place during a Rotary luncheon I once attended. The invocation was given as it always is, but on this occasion, unbeknownst to me, the presenter violated an unwritten rule by invoking the name of Jesus. One of the prominent members who is also a leader of the local Jewish community exploded in a paroxysm of rage ... Why do Jews think it acceptable to decree how Christians may pray? Why do so many Jews feel that they must take offense and react angrily at the invoking of the name of Jesus?"
The lesson to be learned here? Most religions that are thousands of years old still tend to bear a thread of intolerance for their competitors.
"I can never fathom WHY Jews have been so persecuted through the ages? They are an intelligent, talented people (religious group) who have done much for humanity—certainly much more than either the Arabs or Islam EVER have."
A highly subjective assertion. Can any of us say with authority what discovery, when, was more important than any another? I've spent the better part of a decade studying history, and I'm pretty sure I can't.
"Interestingly enough, it is the Jews who have been persecuted throughout history FOR NO REASON!"
"Not all of your brethen seem to concur with you on that one Lilith. As the Jewish author Alan Edelstein noted:"
"Reason and documentation ... attest to the fact that anti-Jewish hostility has not been (and is not) constant and ubiquitous. If it had been, the conclusion is obvious: Jews could not have survived individually or collectively, religiously or ethnically."
Mr. T, you really should learn to read more carefully. "Throughout history" does not say "constant" or "ubiquitous."
My "brethren"? LOL I am not Jewish, Mr. T.
"And there are verses in the Talmud that advocate a pious Jew allow an imperiled Gentile to die, rather than save him. There are verses in the Old Testament that advocate everything from slavery to murder. Show me any book written before the dark ages that doesn't say some pretty damn silly things.
(And no, books by the Greeks are not permitted!)"
There are very few such verses compared to the Qu'ran that has hundreds. Regardless, modern Jews do not invoke Joshua, strap bombs onto themselves and murder Gentiles in pizza parlors and babies in their mother's arms for Yaweh all over the world. Try reading the New Testament. There is no "kill the non believers" sort of talk from Jesus. And in case you are wondering I am not a Christian. The Qu'ran is FULL of violent passages against the "Unbeliever" and these are the latter passages, those that supersede the previous versions "revealed" in Mecca. Therefore, the Islamists are actually following the commands of Allah to the letter.
"The lesson to be learned here? Most religions that are thousands of years old still tend to bear a thread of intolerance for their competitors."
Regardless, NO other religion is committing terror world wide on anyone who is not of that religion except—Islam! There are no clerics of Christian, Jewish, Budhhist, Hindu, Zoroastran, Shinto or whatever religion standing in their houses of worship inciting their faithful to murder the "Unbelievers" via suicidal jihad in the name of their God.
"A highly subjective assertion. Can any of us say with authority what discovery, when, was more important than any another? I've spent the better part of a decade studying history, and I'm pretty sure I can't."
Please let us know Mr. T. what Islam has produced to move humanity forward in the last 500 years? Do provide some links of inventions, technological developments, agricultural or scientific progress, etc. Arafat's Nobel Peace prize does not count! As far as I know, since we are talking about the contribution of Jews vs. Muslims, Jews have dozens of Nobel Prizes in everything from hard sciences to medicine to literature while Muslims have but a handful—and that out of 1.5 BILLION people. Indeed, most Muslims are illiterate. And 85% of those illiteracy rates are among Muslim women.
The fact remains that Islam is a misanthropic, misogynistic cultural, social and political system, that masquerades as a religion. And radical Islam is a fascist, mind-controlling, 7th century death cult, that will take us all down into one dark night. If Islam had a Reformation and therewith gained enlightenment, there might be an Islamic renaissance. Until that happens Muslims will continue to be, in the words of President Musharraf, himself a Muslim:
". . . internally involved in fratricidal conflicts and perceived by the outside world as terrorists with little attention being given on their uplift," he said.
"Today we are the poorest, the most illiterate, the most backward, the most unhealthy, the most un-enlightened, the most deprived, and the weakest of all the human race . . " http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1824455.stm
Lili
Might I suggest ignoring Talismann and his Jew hatred, which he seeks to camouflage (unsuccessfully) in a welter of pseudo verbiage? Feeding the trolls just makes them stronger.
BTW. use of the term "your brethren" is a dead giveaway, lowlife.
Dave; the man who confuses censorship with victory, has never won a debate in his life without resorting to slurs. Not that he won any of those anyhow.
I suggest you raise the bar here Dave, or Melanie will, quite rightly, ban us both.
“Mr. T, you really should learn to read more carefully. "Throughout history" does not say "constant" or "ubiquitous."”
C’mon girl, you don’t see the similarity between “throughout” and “constant”? The insinuation is that it was ongoing and unceasing right? I merely disagree with that notion because it seems nonsensical. History seems rather to indicate that if anything, in most of history, Jews have been, on average, the most privileged minority group around, and not some poor huddled mass constantly set upon by all and sundry. To suggest otherwise is to be ahistorical, and probably just pushing a contemporary political agenda.
“My "brethren"? LOL I am not Jewish, Mr. T.”
Yeah, but you are a part of the general uncritical advocacy club.
“There are very few such verses compared to the Qu'ran that has hundreds. Regardless, modern Jews do not invoke Joshua, strap bombs onto themselves and murder Gentiles in pizza parlors and babies in their mother's arms for Yaweh all over the world. Try reading the New Testament. There is no "kill the non believers" sort of talk from Jesus. And in case you are wondering I am not a Christian. The Qu'ran is FULL of violent passages against the "Unbeliever" and these are the latter passages, those that supersede the previous versions "revealed" in Mecca. Therefore, the Islamists are actually following the commands of Allah to the letter.”
I don’t doubt any of what you claim here. At this point I would like to state clearly that I am not an Islamicist, or an advocate or supporter of any Islamic political, theological or any other precept of any kind. I am not partisan, taking one “side” over another like a spectator at a football match. I don’t really support either side, because neither side seems particularly altruistic, or even genuinely attempting policies that approach a progressive regime aimed at limitation or de-escalation of the conflict.
“Regardless, NO other religion is committing terror world wide on anyone who is not of that religion except—Islam! There are no clerics of Christian, Jewish, Budhhist, Hindu, Zoroastran, Shinto or whatever religion standing in their houses of worship inciting their faithful to murder the "Unbelievers" via suicidal jihad in the name of their God.”
I think you’ll find that over the secular topic of Kashmir, Hindu fanatics have killed rather a large amount of Muslims in the region, as have many Muslims of the region killed many Hindus.
“Please let us know Mr. T. what Islam has produced to move humanity forward in the last 500 years? Do provide some links of inventions, technological developments, agricultural or scientific progress, etc. Arafat's Nobel Peace prize does not count! As far as I know, since we are talking about the contribution of Jews vs. Muslims, Jews have dozens of Nobel Prizes in everything from hard sciences to medicine to literature while Muslims have but a handful—and that out of 1.5 BILLION people. Indeed, most Muslims are illiterate. And 85% of those illiteracy rates are among Muslim women.”
Only over the last 500 years? What about those crucial discoveries that were made before 500 years ago, acting as the foundation upon which many modern discoveries were able to be made? Now, keeping in mind that I am not interested in acting as an advocate of Islam in any way, here are some examples that I will submit purely in the nature of scholarly debate:
I. Medical Science
Dr. Meyerhof writes in "The Legacy of Islam" (P.132): "Muslim doctors laughed at the Crusaders' medical attendants for their clumsy and elementary efforts. The Europeans had not the advantage of the books of Avicenna, Jaber, Hassan bin Haytham, Rhazes. However, they finally had them translated into Latin. These translations exist still, without the translators' names. In the 16th century the books of Averroes (Inb Rushd) and avicenna (Ibn Sina) were put out in Latin translation in Italy and used as the basis of instruction in the Italian and French universities."
On page 116 of the same work he writes that after Rhazes' death the works of Avicenna (AD 980-1037) were taken up. His influence on thought and philosophy and general science was profound, and his medical works (based on the works of Galen which he had found in the Samarqand library in Arabic translation) had a sensational outrech.
Other scientists followed - Abu'l-Qais of Andalusia; Ibn-Zahr of Andalusia; Abbas the Irani; Ali ibn-Rezvan of Egypt; Ibn Butlan of Baghdad; Abu Mansur Muwaffaq of Herat; Ibbn Wafeed of Spain; Masooya o Baghdad; Ali-ibn-Esau of Baghdad; Ammar of Mosul; Ibn-Rushd (Averroes) of Andalusia; whose works were translated into Latin were used in European universities. Europe knew nothing of the cholera bacterium when Islam entered Spain, and the people there regarded the disease as a punishment sent from heaven to exact the penalty of the sins: but Muslim physicians had already proved that even the public plague was a contagious disease and nothing else.
Dr. Meyerhof writes of Avicenna's book "The Canon" that it is a masterpiece of medical science which proved its vworth by being printed in a series of 16 editions in the closing years of the 15th century AD, 15 Latin and one Arabic. In the 16th century more than a score of further editions were published, because of its value as a scientific work. Its use continued throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, so that it became the most widely known of all medical treatises. It is still consulted in medical schools.
Will Durant writes that Mohammad ibn Zachariah Razi (Rhazes) was one of Islam's most progress physicians, author of 200 treatises and books well worth studying today: in particular his
1. "Smallpox and Measles" (published in Latin and other European tounges in 40 editions between 1497 and 1866), and
2. "The Great Encyclopedia" 20 volumes mostly unobtainable nowadays: five volumes were devoted to optics; translated into Latin AD 1279; printed in five editions in 1542 alone; known as the most authoritative work on the eye and its ailments and treatment for centuries; one of the nine basic works on which Paris University composed its medical course in 1394 AD.
Surgery made similar progress in the hands of Islamic practitioners, who even used anaesthetics, though theses are assumed to be of modern origin. They employed a henbane base.
Among Rhazes' innovations was the use of cold water to treat persistent fever, of dry-cupping for apoplexy, of mercury ointment and animal gut for wound sutures, and many others.
Further information on Islamic medicine can be sought from the many books on the subject. The diagnosis of tuberculosis from the fingernails, the cure of jundice, the use of cold water to prevent haemorrage, the crushing of stones in bladder and kidney to facilitate their removal, and surgery for hernia are among advances too numerous to mention in detail. The greatest of the Islamic surgeons was Abu'l Qasem of Andalusia, affectionately called Abu'l-Qays, and sometimes Abu'l-Qasees, flourit 11th century AD, inventor of very many surgical instruments and author of books to describe them and their uses -books translated and printed in innumerable editions in Latin and used all over Europe, the last such edition being in 1816.
II. Hospitals
Georgi Zeidan writes: "Within two centuries of the death of the Prophet, Mecca, Medina and and other great Muslim cities all had hospitals, while the Abbasid governors and their ministers competed each for his own region to have the best such institution for the care of the sick. Baghdad alone had four important hospitals. By three centuries after the hijra the governor Adhud-ud-Dowleh Deylamy had founded the Adhudi Hospital with 24 specialists, each master of his own particular field, a hospital which soon earned the reputation of excelling all hospitals throughout Islam, though in the course of time it too was surpassed.
The order and arrangement of Islamic hospitals was such that no distinctions of race, religion or occupation were recognised, but cure was administered with meticulous care to any patient. Separate wards were allotted for patients of specific diseases. These were teaching hospitals where the students learned theory and observed practice. In addition, There were travelling hospitals which carried doctors and their gear by camel or mule to every district. Sultan Mahmoud the Seljuk travelled with a hospital which required 40 camels for its transport."
Dr. Gustave le Bon writes: "Muslim hospitals went in for preventive medicine and the preservation of health as much as if not more than for the cure of the already diseased. They were well-aired and had plenty of running water. Muhammad bin Zachariah Razi (Razes) was ordered by the Sultan to seek out the healthiest place in the Baghdad neighbourhood for the construction of a new hospital. He visited every section of the town and its environs, and hung up a piece of meat which he left while he looked into infectious diseases in the neighbourhood and studied climatic conditions, particularly the state of the water. He balanced all these various experimental tests and finally found them all to indicate that the place where the portion of meat was the last to putrefy and develop infectious bacteria was the spot on which to build. These hospitals had large common wards and also private wards for individuals. Pupils were trained in diagnosis and brought obserrvation and experience to the perfecting of their studies. There were also special mental hospitals, and pharmacies which dispensed prescriptions gratis."
Marc Kapp writes: "Cairo had a huge hospital with playing fountains and flower-decked gardens and 40 large courtyards. Every unfortunate patient was kindly received, and after his cure sent home with five gold coins. While Cordoba, besides its 600 mosques and 900 hammams, had 50 hospitals."
III. Pharmacology
[Pharmacology, as many other branches of sciences, is considered by Europeans to be an entirely new scientific field. In this respect, they feel, like ancient tribes, that the world is limited to the horisons of their territory. One must realize that this knowledge has mainly originated from the Middle East as well as from China].
[In Europe, until recently,] there was a surprising reluctance to apply anything resembling scientific principles to therapeutics. Even Robert Boyle, who laid the scientific foundations of chemistry in the middle of the seventeenth century, was content, when dealing with therapeutics (A Collection of Choice Remedies, 1692), to describe and recommend a hotch-potch of messes consisting of worms, dung, urine and the moss from a dead man's skull.
Gustave le Bon writes: "Besides the use of cold water to treat typhoid cases - a treatment later abandoned, though Europe is taking this Muslim invention up again in modern times after a lapse of centuries - Muslims invented the art of mixing chemical medicaments in pills and solutions, many of which are in use to this day, though some of them are claimed as wholly new inventions of our present century by chemists unaware of their distinguished history. Islam had dispensaries which filled prescriptions for patients gratis, and in part of countries where no hospitals were reachable, physicians paid regular visits with all the tools of their trade to look after public health."
Georgi Zeidan writes: "Modern European pharmacologists who have studied the history of their profession find that Muslim doctors launched many of the modern beneficial specifics centuries ago, made a science of pharmacology and compound cures, and set up the first pharmacies on the modern model. So that Baghdad alone had 60 chemists shops dispencing prescriptions regularly at the charges of Caliph. Evidence of these facts can be seen in the names given in Europe to quite a number of medicines and herbs which betray their Arabic, Indian or Persian origin." Such are 'alcohol', 'alkaner', 'apricot', 'arsenic', to quote some 'a's alone.
IV. Industry
The Abbasid Caliph Haroun-al-Rashid sent Charlemagne in Aix from Baghdad a present of a clock made by his horologists which struck a bell on the hour very hour, to the great wonder and delight of the whole court of the newly crowned Holy Roman Emperor.
The massacre and expulsion of the Muslims of Andalusia by the Christians carried with it the clousure of many of the great factories that has existed under Islamic rule, and the standstill of progress that had been made in science, crafts, arts, agriculture, and other products of civilization. Towns began to fall into ruin because of the lack of skilled masons. Madrid dropped from 400,000 to 200,000 inhabitants: Seville, which had possessed 1,600 factories under the Muslims, lost all but 300, and the 130,000 workers formerly employed had no more jobs, while the census of Philip IV showed a fall of 75% in population figures.
It was the Muslims also who brought about the substitution of cotton-wove paper for the old parchments; and it was this invention which formed the basis for Europe's later invention of printing, using an old Chinese technique, and so for the vast uprush of learning which came with the Renaissance. More, since monks were starved for parchment on which to write their religious works, they were tending more and more to scrape off priceless ancient scientific texts from old parchments and to use them again as palimpsets. The introduction of paper put a stop to this disastrous practice in time to save quite a number of texts which would have otherwise been lost for ever, as, alas, too many were.
A paper manuscript of the year AD 1009 was found in the Escorial library, and claims to be the oldest hand-written book on paper still in existence. Silk-wove paper, of course, was a Chinese invention, since silk was native to China though rare in Europe; and the Musulman genius lay in seeing the possibility of substituting cotton for silk, and so giving Europe a plentiful supply of a practicable material for the reproduction of books by the monkish scribes.
Philip Hitti writes in his "History of the Arabs" that the art of road-making was so well developed in Islamic lands that Cordova had miles of paved road lit from the houses on each side at night so that people walked in safety; while in London or Paris anyone who ventured out on a rainy night sank up to his ankles in mud - and did so for seven centuries after Cordova was paved! Oxford men then held that bathing was an idolatrous practice; while Cordovan students revelled in luxurious public hammams!
V. Geography
The Arabian Nights' tales of Sindbad the Sailor, and of his voyages to China, Japan, and the Spice Islands of Indonesia, give quite enough evidence of the brilliance of Arabic commercial shipping and the knowledge of meteorology and geography which was at their disposal. Small wonder that the Faith spread through them from Morocco to Mindanao.
But, besides the SE Asian seas, arabic sailors penetrated far down the East coast of Africa, and also up the rivers which are channels from the Black Sea into the distant interior of Russia. The Safarname (Travel journal) of Suleiman, a sea-captain of Seraf, the port on the Persian Gulf recently excavated by Dr. David Stronach of the British Institute of Persian Studies, was published at the end of the 9th century AD with accounts of his voyages to India and China. It was translated into Latin, as giving some of the earliest first-hand knowledge of China which ever reached Europe.
The geographer Ibn Hauqal (floruit circa AD 975) wrote in his preface: "I have written the latitude and longitude of the places of this earth, of all its countries, with their boundaries, and the dominions of Islam, with acareful map of each section on which I have marked numerous places, e.g. the cities, the kasbahs, the rivers, the lakes, the crops, the types of agriculture, the roads, the distances between place and place, the goods for commerce and everything else in the science of geography which can be useful to sovereigns and their ministers and interesting to all people in general.
Abu-Reihan al-Biruni, Ibn Batuta and Abu'l-Haussan are amongst other names in the history of the science of geography whose worldwide travels were accompanied by meticulous observation and painstaking notes, which are amongst the proudest achievements of science in our world to this day.
VI. Chemistry
Jaber ibn Haiyan, disciple of the sixth Imam Ja'afar-i-Sadeq, became known world-wide as "the Father of Chemistry" and of Arab alchemy. His influence on western chemistry and alchemy was profound and long-lasting. Some hundred of his works survive. Of him the late Sayyid Hebbat-ud-Din Shahristani of Kadhemain, once Iraq's Minister of Education, writes: "I have seen some 50 ancient MSS of works of Jaber all dedicated to his master Imam Ja'afar. More than 500 of his works have been put into print and are for the most part to be found among the treasures of the National libraries of Paris and Berlin, while the savants of Europe nickname him affectionately 'Wisdom's Professor' and attribute to him the discovery of 19 of the elements with their specific weights, etc. Jaber says all can be traced back to simple basic particle composed of a charge of lightning (electricity) and fire, the atom, or smallest indivisible unit of matter, very close to modern atomic science.
The blending of colouring matters, dyeing, extraction of minerals and metals, steelmaking, tanning, were amongst industrial techniques of which the Muslims were early masters. They produced Nitric Acid, Sulphoric acid, Nitro-glycerin, Hydrochloric Acid, Potassium, Aqua Ammonia, Sal Ammoniac, Silver Nitrate, Sulphoric Chloride, Potassium Nitrate, Alcohol, Alkali (both still known by their Arabic names), Orpiment (yellow tri-sulphide of arsenic; arsenic is derived from the Persian zar = gold, adjective zarnee = golden, Arabised with article "al" to "al-zernee" pronounced "azzernee" and so taken into Greek where was turned to the recognizable word "arsenikon" which means "masculine" since the gold colour was supposed to link it with the sun, a musculine diety!): and finally - though this does not close the list we might cite - Borax, also an Arabic word - Booraq. Further, the arts of distilling, evaporation, sublimation, and the use of Sodium, Carbon, Potassium Carbonate, Chloride, and Ammonium were common under the Abbasid Caliphate.
VII. Mathematics
Baron Carra de Vaux, author of the chapter on "Astronomy and Mathematics" in "The Legacy of Islam" (OUP 1931 pp. 376-398), points out that the word "algebra" is a Latinisation of the Arabic term Al-jabr (= "i.e. of complicated numbers to a simpler language of symbols)., thereby revealing the debt the world owes to the Arabs for this invention. Furthermore the numerals that are used are "Arabic numerals" not merely in name but also in fact. Above all Arabs' realisation of the value of the Hindu symbol for zero laid the foundation of all our modern computerised technology. The word "zero", like its cousin "cipher" are both attempts at transliterating the Arabic "sefr", in order to convoy into Europethe reality and the meaning of that word in Arabic.
De Vaux writes: "By using ciphers the Arabs became the founders of the arithmetic of everyday life; they mada algebra an exact science and developed it considerably; they laid the foundations of analytical geometry; they were indisputably the founders of plane and spherical trigonometry. The astrolabe (safeeha) was invented by the Arab Al-Zarqali (Arzachel) who lived in Spain AD 1029-1087. The word "algorism" is a latinisation of the name of his home province Al-Khwarizmi. The Arabs kept alive the higher intellectual life and the study of science in a period when the Christian West was fighting desperately with barbarism".
This is not the place to go further into Muslim achievements in mathimatics and astronomy. Suffice it to refer once again to the Jalali calendar of Omar Khayyam, with its formulae for exact calculation of the timing of the earth's orbits round the sun, to which reference has been made earlier.
VIII. Art
Cordova Mosque is one of the finest monuments of Muslim art in Europe. Its architect and masons were local talent, who introduced a number of novelties. The Muslims excelled at mosaic, inlay, fretwork and applique work of all types. Marvellous doors, pulpits, and ceilings are decorated in many of the ancient mosques all over the Muslim world with a lacelike design of mosaic, carved invory and wood and plaster, and fitted pieces of carved wood interlocking with each other with consummate artistry. Chased and engraved wood and ivory are everywhere. Thus the Altar of the Church of Saint Isidore Hispalensis (archbishop of Seville in the first years of the 7th century AD) like the carved ivory jewel-case made for Queen Isabella in the 11th century and the carved ivory box now in the Church at Bayeux of the 12th century (obviously some Crusader's loot from the East) inlaid with silver in chased gold, are examples of that art which was the glory of Eastern lands. All this delicate and minute handiwork was carried out with the crudest and roughest of tools, itself a further tribute to the skill and artistry of the makers.
Jewel-studded boxes and cases and caskets are to be seen in many places, though the best are on view in the museums of Damascus and Cairo. Well said Sa'adi: "An Eastern artist may take 40 years to make one porcelain vase: the West turns out 100 a day, all like: the comparative worth of the two products can be easily reckoned!"
The Muslims were also past masters of the art of carved and coloured plaster work, in a style which still subsists though modern technologies are, alas, rendering the skill rarer all the time. Tenth century examples, some with enamelled work also, are to be found in Andalusia. The Alhambra has 13th century masterpieces of this work. The glitter like the later Italian Majolica. The famous Alhambra flower-vase, 1.5 metres high, is unique in this line.
IX. Mechanical Engineering
About the author
Donald R. Hill, a retired engineer, became interested in Arabic while serving with Britain's Eighth Army in North africa during World War II. After the war, he worked for the Iraq Pertoleum Company, returning to England to join Imperyal Chemical Industries. He later moved to senior positions in the subsidiaries of two U.S. petrochemical corporations, from which he retired in 1984. He now devotes his time to Arabic studies, in which he has earned a master's degree from Durham University and a Ph.D. from the University of London's School of Oriental and African studies. His translation of al-Jazari's book of mechines won for him a share of the 1974 Dexter Prize, awarded by the American Society for the History of Technology.
Preface
The West is accustomed to seeing its own intellectual development as having been shaped, in the main, by internal factors. This view of history traces our heritage back from the Industrial Revolution to the Enlightenment and Renaissance and, thence, via the monkish scribes of the Middle Ages, to the fountainhead: Greece, Rome and the ancient empires of the Fertile Crescent.
But the picture is incomplete because it ignores the intermediation of the civilization of Greek Christendom (or Byzantium), Hindu India, Confucian China and Islam. Our subject here is the technology of medieval Islam - the knowledge it preserved, the new ideas it contributed to the medieval world and the inventions by which it anticipated later developments.
When the prophet Muhammad died in A.D. 632, he left behind a new religion with its administrative centre at Medina and its spiritual heart at Mecca. Within about a year of his death the rest of Arabia had joined the Muslim fold; by 750 the Arab Empire stretched from the Pyrenees to central Asia.
Although the advent of Islam brought immense political, religious and cultural changes, the technological traditions were largely unaffected. In mechanical engineering the Muslims adapted the techniques of earlier civilizations to satisfy the needs of the new society. These needs centered on a city life more extensive than any seen since Roman times.
Baghdad's population is estimated to have reached about 1.5 million in the 10th century, and cities such as Cordoba, Cairo and Samarkand, although smaller, were still of considerable magnitude. Paris, by contrast, would not number 100,000 souls for another 400 years. Feeding and clothing the inhabitants of the Islamic world's vast urban centers placed great demands on agriculture and distribution. These, in turn, depended on technology for supplying irrigation water to the fields and for processing the crops into foodstuffs.
Water and water power, therefore, will constitute our first concern. Then we shall describe water mills. Finally, we shall turn to descriptions, most of them in a handful of treatises that have come down to us, of water clocks, fountains and various automata, some of which might seem trivial to modern eyes. Yet they exploit concepts, components and techniques that did not enter the armamentarium of European engineering until the time of the Renaissance.
The most ancient water-raising machine is the shaduf, a counterweighted lever from which a bucket is suspended into a well or stream. It appears in illustrations from as early as 2500 B.C. in Akkadin reliefs and is still in use today in parts of the Middle East. Other traditional water-raising machines, introduced between the third and first centuries B.C., include the screw, or water snail, whose invention is attributed to the great mathematician Archemides. It consists of a helical wooden blade rotating within a barrellike wooden cylinder, a design that could not push water up inclines greater than about 30 degrees, although 20 degrees was more common.
Higher lift was achieved by the noria, a large wheel driven by the velocity of the current. On the outer rim a series of compartments are fitted in between a series of paddles that dip into the water and provide the propulsive power. The water is scooped up by the compartments, or pots, and is discharged into a head tank or an aqueduct at the top of the wheel. Norias could be made quite large. The well-known whells at Hama on the river Orontes in Syria have a diameter of about 20 meters. The noria is self-acting, and its operation thus requires the presence of neither man nor beast. It is, however, expensive to build and maintain.
The "saqiya" is probably the most widespread and useful of all the water-raising machines that medieval Islam inherited and improved. It is a chain of pots driven by one or two animals by means of a pair of gears. The animals push a drawbar through a circle, turning an axle whose pinion meshes with a vertical gear. The gear carries a bearing for the chain of pots, or pot garland - two ropes between which earthenware pots are suspended. The chain of pots is optimal for raising comparatively small amounts of water from comparatively deep wells.
Other mechanisms, however, were required to raise large quantities of water relatively small distances. The problem can be solved by using a spiral scoop wheel, which raises water to the ground level with a high degree of efficiency. The machine is very popular in Egypt nowadays, and engineers at a research laboratory near Cairo have been trying to improve the shape of the scoop in order to achieve the maximal output. Although it appears very modern in design, this is not the case; a 12th-century miniature from Baghdad shows a spiral scoop wheel driven by two oxen.
These machines are still in use in many oil-poor middle eastern countries, because for many purposes they are at least as efficient as diesel-driven pumps. Moreover, they do not require imported fuels, spare parts or labor. Vital time can therefore be saved, when the loss of even a single day's operation of a machine can kill a crop, making reliable performance literally a matter of life and death.
Given the importance of water-raising devices to the economy of many Islamic societies, it is hardly surprising that attempts were made to introduce new designs or modify existing ones. Some of the most interesting innovations are found in one section of Ibn al-Razzaz al-Jazari's great book, The book of knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, which was completed in Diyar Bakr in Upper Mesopotamia in 1206 AD.
From our point of view, the most significant aspect of these machines is the ideas and components that they embody. For example, one of them is explicitly designed to eliminate out-of-balance loading and so produce a smoother operation. Another incorporates a crank, the first known example of the non-manual use of this important component. Some of these devices functioned as curiosities.
The invention containing the most features of relevance for the development of mechanical design, however, was intended as a practical machine for high-lift duties: a twin cylinder, water-driven pump. A stream turned a paddle wheel meshing with a horisontal gear wheel, which was installed above a sump that drained into the stream. The horisontal wheel contained a slot into which a vertical pin fitted near the perimeter of the wheel.
The turning wheel moved two connecting rods back and forth, thus driving opposing pistons made of copper disks spaced about six centimeters apart, the gap being packed with hemp. The pistons entered copper cylinders, each one having a suction and delivery pipe. One piston began its suction stroke while the other began its delivery stroke. This machine is remarkable for three reasons: it incorporates an effective means of converting rotary into reciprocating motion, it makes use of the double-acting principle and it is the first pump known to have had true suction pipes.
Waterpower was clearly a prominent concern of medieval Islamic planners. Whenever they mentioned a stream or river, for example, they often included an estimate of how many mills it would operate. One might say that they assessed streams for "mill powe"
WATERMILLS
The three main types of waterwheel had all been in existence since Classical times - the horisontal wheel and two variations of the vertical wheel. The horisontal wheel has vanes protruding from a wooden rotor, onto which a jet of water is directed. In modern Europe the design was altered to use water moving axially, like air flowing through a pinwheel, creating the water turbine. Interestingly, wheels with curved blades onto which the flow was directed axially are described in an Arabic treatise of the ninth century.
The more powerful vertical wheels came in two designs: undershot and overshot. The former is a paddle wheel that turns under the impulse of the current. The overshot wheel receives water from above, often from specially constructed channels; it thus adds the impetus of gravity to that of the current.
When the levels of rivers fall in the dry season, and their flow diminishes, undershot wheels lose some of their power. Indeed, if they are fixed to the banks of rivers, their paddles may cease to be immersed. One way this problem was avoided by mounting the waterwheels on the piers of bridges and taking advantage of the increased flow there. Another common solution was provided by the shipmill, powered by undershot wheels mounted on the sides of ships moored in midstream. On the rivers Tigris and Euphrates in the 10th century, in Upper Mesopotamia, which was the granary for Baghdad, enormous shipmills made of teak and iron could produce 10 tons of flour from corn in every 24-hour period.
Gristmilling - the grinding of corn and other seeds to produce meal - was always the most important function of mills. Mills were, however, put to many other industrial uses. Among these applications were the fulling of cloth, the crushing of mettalic ores prior to the extraction process, rice husking, paper making and the pulping of sugarcane. The usual method of adapting waterwheels for such purposes was to extend the axle and fit cams to it. The cams caused trip-hammers to be raised and then released to fall on the material.
WINDMILLS
Where waterpower was scarce, the Muslims had recourse to the wind. Indeed it was in riverless Seistan, now in the western part of Afghanistan, that windmills were invented, probably early in the seventh century A.D. The mills were supported on substructures built for the purpose or on the towers of castles or the tops of hills. They consisted of an upper chamber for the millstones and a lower one for the rotor. A vertical axle carried either 12 or six rotor blades, each covered with a double skin of fabric. Funnel-shaped ducts pierced the walls of the lower chamber, their narrower ends facing toward the interior in order to increase the speed of the wind when it flowed against the sails.
This type of windmill spread throughout the Islamic world and thence China and India. In medieval Egypt it was used in the sugarcane industry, but its main application was to gristmilling.
FINE TECHNOLOGY
Now we turn to a type of engineering that is quite different from the utilitarian technology described so far. We may perhaps call it fine technology, since its distinguishing features derive from the use of delicate mechanisms and controls.
Some of these devices had obvious practical uses: water clocks were used in astronomical observations and were also erected in public places; astronomical instruments aided both observation and computation. Other gave amusement and aesthetic pleasure to the members of courtly circles. Still others undoubtedly had didactic purposes, for example, to demonstrate the principles of pneumatics as understood at the time. Apart from astronomical instruments and the remains of two large water clocks in Fez, Morocco, none of theses machines has survived. Our knowledge of them comes almost entirely from two of Arabic treatises that have come down to us.
The first is by the Bano (Arabic for sons of) Musa, three brothers who lived in Baghdad in the ninth century. They were patrons of scholars and translators as well as eminent scientists and engineers in their own right. They undertook public works and geodetic surveys and wrote a number of books on mathematical and scientific subjects, only three of which have survived.
The one that concerns us here is "The Book of Ingenious Devices". It contains descriptions, each with an illustration, of 100 devices, some 80 of which are trick vessels of various kinds. There are also fountains that change shape at intervals, a "hurricane" lamp, self-trimming and self-feeding lamps, a gas mask for use in polluted wells and a grab for recovering objects from the beds of streams. This last is of exactly the same construction as a modern clamshell grab.
The trick vessels have a variety of different effects. For example, a single outlet pipe in a vessel might pour out first wine, then water and finally a mixture of the two. Although it cannot be claimed that the results are important, the means by which they were obtained are of great significance for the history of engineering. The Banu Musa were masters in the exploitation of small variations in aerostatic and hydrostatic pressures and in using conical valves as "in-line" components in flow systems, the first known use of conical valves as automatic controllers.
In several of these vessels, one can withdraw small quantities of liquid repeatedly, but if one withdraws a large quantity, no further extractions are possible. In modern terms, one would call the method used to achieve this result a fail-safe system.
The second major treatise to have come down to modern times was written by al-Jazari at the close of the 12th century. He was a servant of the Artuqid princes, vasals of Saladin (who vanquished Richard the Lion Heart during the Third Crusade). His work places him in the front rank of mechanical engineers from any cultural region in pre-Renaissance times.
Several of al-Jazary's machines have been reconstructed by modern craftsmen working from his specifications, which provided far more detail than was customary in the days before patent law was invented. Such openness has rarely been encountered until recent times.
WATER CLOCKS
Al-Jazari's clocks all employed automata to mark the passage of the hours. These included birds that discharged pellets from their beaks onto cymblas , doors that opened to reveal the figures of humans, rotating Zodiac circles, the figures of musicians who struck drums or played trumpets and so on. Generally speaking, the prime movers transmitted power to these automata by means of pulley systems and tripping mechanisms. In the largest of the water clocks, which had a working face of about 11 feet high by 4.5 feet wide, the drive came from the steady descent of a heavy float in a circular reservoir.
Clearly, some means of maintaining a constant outflow from the reservoir was needed and was indeed achieved in a most remarkable way. Apipe made of cast bronze led out from the bottom of the tap, and its end was bent down at right angles and formed into the seat of a conical valve. Directly below this outlet sat a small cylindrical vessel in which there bobbed a float with the valve plug on its upper surface.
When the tap opened, water ran into the float chamber, the float rose and caused a plug to enter the valve's seat. Water was thus discharged from a pipe at the bottom of the float chamber, and the valve opened momentarily, whereupon water entered from the reservoir, the valve closed momentarily and so on. An almost constant head was therefore maintained in the float chamber by feedback control, and the large float in the reservoir descended at constant speed. Al-Jazari said he got the idea for his invention from a simpler version which he attributed to Archimedes.
This clock did not record equal hours of 60 minutes each, but temporal hours, that is to say, the hours of daylight or darkness were divided by 12 to give hours that varied with the seasons. This measurement required another piece of equipment: the pipe from the float chamber leading into a flow regulator, a device that allowed the orifice to be turned through a complete circle and thus to vary the static head below the surface of the water in the reservoir. Previous flow regulators had all been inaccurate , but al-Jazari describes how he calibrated the instrument accurately by painstaking tial-and-error methods. Another type of clock, which may have been al-Jazari's own invention, incorporates a closed-loop system: the clock worked as long as it was kept loaded with metal balls with which to strike a gong.
CANDLE CLOCKS
Al-Jazari also describes candle clocks, which all worked on a similar principle. Each design specified a large candle of uniform cross section and known weight (they even laid down the weight of the wick). The candle was installed inside a metal sheath, to which a cap was fitted. The cap was made absolutely flat by turning it on a lathe; it had a hole in the centre, around which, on the upper side, was an indentation.
The candle, whose rate of burning was known, bore against the underside of the cap, and its wick passed through the hole. Wax collected in the indentation and could be removed periodically so that it did not interfere with steady burning. The bottom of the candle rested in a shallow dish that had a ring on its side connected through pulleys to a counterweight. As the candle burned away, the weight pushed it upward at a constant speed. The automata were operated from the dish at the bottom of the candle. No other candle clocks of this sophistication are known.
MISCELLANEOUS
Other chapters of al-Jazari's work describe fountains and musical automata, which are of interest mainly because in them the flow of water alternated from one large tank to another at hourly or half-hourly intervals. Several ingenious devices for hydraulic switching were used to achieve this operation. Mechanical controls are also described in chapters dealing with a potpourri of devices, including a large metal door, a combination lock and a lock with four bolts.
We see for the first time in al-Jazari's work several concepts important for both design and construction: the lamination of timber to minimize warping, the static balancing of wheels, the use of wooden templates (a kind of pattern), the use of paper models to establish designs, the calibration of orifices, the grinding of the seats and plugs of valves together with emery powder to obtain a watertight fit, and the casting of metals in closed mold boxes with sand.
http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm
That is the site I took that information from verbatim, and I cannot vouch for its authenticity or accuracy. I doubt it will turn out to be far off the mark however, in what it asserts.
“The fact remains that Islam is a misanthropic, misogynistic cultural, social and political system, that masquerades as a religion. And radical Islam is a fascist, mind-controlling, 7th century death cult, that will take us all down into one dark night. If Islam had a Reformation and therewith gained enlightenment, there might be an Islamic renaissance. Until that happens Muslims will continue to be, in the words of President Musharraf, himself a Muslim:
". . . internally involved in fratricidal conflicts and perceived by the outside world as terrorists with little attention being given on their uplift," he said.
"Today we are the poorest, the most illiterate, the most backward, the most unhealthy, the most un-enlightened, the most deprived, and the weakest of all the human race . . "
Yep, it is all-round crappy. I’m not arguing with that, in any way. I never suggested otherwise. I do however, argue against our tendency to see those that do horrible things on one side of a conflict as the only barbaric transgressors, and those on the other side, who might come across rather better, thanks to powerful and slippery lobbyists and spin-managers in the west, who do the same stuff, but come out of it looking whiter-than-white.
Lilith, the bulk of that post was quoted from a US site.
Britain was probably wrong to go to war. Yes it is true until October 1942, the prisoners in Auschwitz were Soviet Soldiers and Poles, and the first exterminated. This happened after Britain and France declared war, and AFTER the US declared neutrality.
You have made me consider these events more carefully. War between Britain and Germany was not inevitable and was probably wrong. The Friendship Treaty between USSR and Germany showsc a desire for peace with Britain and France......and no doubt none of these events you describe would have occurred had Britain settled in September/October 1939.
In this the United States pursued a more sensible policy, whereas Britain bankrupted itself and lost influence in Europe. I thank you Lilith for showing me that it was not inevitable that Britain should fight Germany, merely the irrascible reaction of Neville Chamberlain.
"Britain knew that the Nazis were "exterminating" Jews and other "Untermenschen" in Germany and ultimately Europe. The fact is that Jews of Europe, especially in Germany, were DECIMATED with the help of most of Europe! Are you suggesting that Britain should have continued to ignore this atrocity with "neutrality"?"
Britain had no knowledge that Germany was "exterminating" Jews in 1939 simply because it was not doing so. It was however exterminating T-4 disabled at Hadamar, Sonnenberg, etc whih you never mention Lilith. Still hardly a reason to repeat the 1914-18 War.
It Jews were "decimated" that means 90% survived, which is not as melodramatic as you paint things. However, I disagree on two counts: a) many more than 10% were eventually killed b) perhaps none would have been exterminated had war not occurred, and it was not inevitable.
Britain declared war on Germany; France was reluctant and did so 5 hours later; the Us was neutral until Hitler declared war on the US on 11 December 1941. Since no Jews were gassed at Auschwitz until October 1942, it seems to suggest that had Britain not declared war Germany would have been conducive to reason and the Us could have been an 'honest broker' in settling otstanding issues.....and many of us would have more complete families than is the case with war dead and huge destruction in Europe.
So yes, Lilith, you are right to blame Britain....had it sensibly stayed neutral, Europe might have been spared a devastating war.
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